Examples of Buddhist Practice Without ‘Buddhism’
Recently there has been a trend to discuss Buddhist practice without mentioning Buddhism or explicitly stating that there is no ‘Buddhism’ in the practice under discussion. I have some examples of this kind of dialogue and promotion of Buddhist practice without Buddhism. I am not criticizing this trope—only pointing out this latest phenomenon which decontextualizes and abstracts teachings and practices from their Buddhist worldview. There are certainly many more examples than the ones below, however, these have a web presence and I have been thinking about them for other writings lately.
The Secular Buddhist is a companion website to the Secular Buddhist podcast which aims to apply secular ideas to early Buddhist thought. Here are the main aims of the podcast:
“Share accurate information, clarify misperceptions, and critically examine the teaching and practice of early Buddhism of interest to a secular audience. Distinguish cultural accretions from that teaching and practice, and discuss secular Buddhist culture. Discuss other topics and skills, like critical thinking, of benefit to the practice of secular Buddhism. Discuss issues pertaining to separation of church and state, as they impact both traditional Buddhism and secular practice.”
The podcast and website explore further these ideas of a secular Buddhism and its practice. The guests on the show, many are well-known authors such as Stephen Batchelor, align with the idea of a secular Buddhism and discuss related topics. Main themes that run throughout the podcast discussions are reading the Buddha’s teachings in Pali, setting up secular Buddhist practice groups, and hearing the life stories of those former monks and nuns who have turned to a more secular Buddhist practice.
The founder of the website and podcast, Ted Meissner, has a modern Buddhist view that early Buddhism is a rational and pragmatic practice that holds an empirical method close to science. He finds that Buddhism is now however, ‘laden with religious trappings.’ The purpose of his website and podcast is to disseminate information about Buddhism from a non-religious perspective
Stephen Schettini has two websites dedicated to practicing Buddhism without Buddhism. A former Tibetan Buddhist monk, he has come to realize that the ‘religion’ of Buddhism is unnecessary.
“Years of meditation, studying and reflection have led me to believe that the Buddha Siddhattha Gotama was what I can only call a humanist and skeptic of the first order. He had no time for the religion of his day or the eternally inconclusive debate as to whether or not there is a creator God. His question wasn’t why are we here, but here we are — now what? . . . I no longer belong to any tradition; my understanding of what the Buddha taught led me away from Buddhist institutions. As paradoxical as that seems, it’s a common theme of our times — not just for me, and not just for Buddhists, either . . .”
Similar to the perspective espoused in the Secular Buddhist, Stephen Schettini looks to the early life and times of the Buddha and finds no ‘religion.’ Because of this they both decide to be non-religious in their Buddhist practice. The Quiet Mind website and its Mindful Reflection practices of Stephen Schettini are also discussed as non-Buddhist practices that came from teachings of the Buddha and Buddhist teachers.
These two practitioners provide evidence of a further divorcing of Buddhist practice from what they consider to be ‘the Buddhist religion.’ These kinds of ideas are well-entrenched within modern Buddhism but it seems now these ideas no longer need ‘Buddhism’ attached to the phenomenon’s name. Now this is a secular or non-religious practice that bows its head to the Buddha but not to anything else related to the tradition named after him.
Social Discourses of Meditation
Buddhism entered the popular imagination of English-speaking societies for the first time in the late nineteenth century. The world of Buddhism described in these books— and other ideas, values and images of Buddhism that quickly became public knowledge through various routes— presented a challenge to this audience as it confounded the characteristics of other known religions. Alternately praised and derided for stepping outside the fixed religious categories known to the western world, Buddhism has continued to be a particularly contentious religious and philosophical category in Western countries. Orientalists praised the “pure,” rational and scientific origins of the Buddhist tradition while at the same time derided the belief system as nihilistic and pessimistic in contrast to the optimism of Christianity. The early interpretations were based on the historical context of colonialism in Asian Buddhist countries as well as fear of conversion to this new and interesting religion.
The current context of interpretation of Buddhism among scholars and practitioners is much changed. Today Buddhism is still seen as a challenge to religious categories, but with the negative ideas of religion in the modern world, this is seen as a positive for Buddhism. There is no longer much discussion of conversion or competition of Buddhism with Christianity except in perhaps the more extreme missionary Christians. How did these changes occur? Certainly this change concerns the present postcolonial context of the interpretation of Buddhism, but it also has to do with the one topic that was not discussed much for nineteenth century interpreters: meditation. Non-self, paticca samupada, atheism, the biography of the Buddha were all major discussion points for early scholars. But today Buddhism is completely intertwined with meditation in the popular imagination and this has changed the interpretations of Buddhism in significant ways.
It is not the existence of meditation as a popular image of Buddhism that is the most significant, however, it is the idea that meditation can be divorced from the tradition of Buddhism and can be practiced by everyone. This idea is what has changed the popular imagination of Buddhism so that it is no longer in competition with Christianity or other religious and non-religious systems, but can be a complement to them. Evidence of this can be seen in the many instances of hybrid religiosities mixing Christianity and other religions with Buddhism. People that identify as a hybrid Buddhist do so mainly because they have a regular meditation practice. Others who practice meditation call themselves non-religious or practice mindfulness for pain, stress-reduction, addiction, and a whole host of daily life, mundane goals. These ideas are not only in Western countries, but do affect Asian Buddhist communities as well. Asian Buddhists were certainly both influenced by these non-religious meditative discourses but also contributed to them.
These discourses are affirmed and recognized in the interesting and illuminating example of Thailand’s international meditation centers. International meditation teachers in Thailand often argue that there is a need to dereligionize meditation in Thailand for foreigners. Because of the location of the practice in a Buddhist country and Buddhist temple, there is a heightened atmosphere of religious practices that some international meditators find confusing and disconcerting. This is, of course, in contrast to Thai meditators. Thai monk international meditation teachers who cater to both Thai and international communities have different roles they assume and only one of these is presenting the practice of meditation to international travelers. For Thai meditators the meditation center exposes a religiosity with meditation as one part but for international meditators it is dereligionized with meditation heightened and ritualized forms separated and deemphasized.
In this context it is clear to see the self-conscious changes made to teach and present meditation to a foreign audience. Therefore there are dual processes at work here: the international meditators attitudes and feedback as well as the meditation teachers’ adaptations and innovations for this audience. The use of Western categories such as ‘culture’ and ‘religion’ to describe meditation in a favorable and appealing light are used frequently by teachers. International meditators are assumed to be interested in meditation without the culture. Meditation teachers apply these categories and allow adaptations and flexibility in international meditation centers accordingly. Therefore these teachers are aware of the international communities’ perceptions of meditation and are interested in creating spaces for international meditators to practice in the ways they already perceive of the practice.
This history of the interpretation of meditation from its silence in the nineteenth century to its prominence currently has created much change for the ideas about Buddhism. From a religion that was compared with Christianity to one that can be a supplement to it, from a practice that was barely mentioned to one that most people travelling to Thailand would like to try, the ideas of meditation have created a discourse within the popular imagination that this Buddhist practice isn’t for only Buddhists, but for everyone and has manifold benefits. The consequences of this message can be seen clearly in Thailand’s international meditation centers where meditation is divorced from the Buddhist worldview specifically for foreign travelers. Particular adaptations, reinterpretations and much flexibility is needed to maintain this discourse of openness while practicing in a Thai temple—depending on the teacher this is carried out to varying degrees.
The Rise of Mindfulness Meditation
The practice of mindfulness, popularized perhaps most famously by Thich Nhat Hanh, is today even more on the rise. Significant themes of the popularity of this practice have to do with it being divorced from the tradition of Buddhism and its relationship with scientific study and health benefits. Two recent websites dedicated to mindfulness practice and research are interesting examples of the popularity and ideas surrounding mindfulness.
Mindful (mindful.org) Living with Awareness and Compassion website promotes the specific practice of mindfulness without Buddhism. The website explicitly states to check out their magazines, Shambhala Sun and Buddhadharma, if looking for a more Buddhist context. This idea of separate teachings/practices for those interested in ‘Buddhism,’ is not new. I have seen this in my research of international meditation centers. For example, the Buddhist Meditation Institute at Wat Luang Por Sot is planning to have two websites: one for people interested in Buddhism, and one for people only interested in meditation. As well the Middle Way retreat run out of Wat Dhammakaya used to have two kinds of retreats: one for people interested in Buddhism and one for people only interested in meditation. Another example of this from Tibetan Buddhism is Chogyam Trungpa’s separation of teachings into two distinct groupings. Although today the two have merged he originally set up Vajradhatu for those interested in Tibetan Buddhism and Shambhala Training as a secular, non-Buddhist meditative practice. Therefore this is a trend that many have picked up on. This trend is the need for dual advertisements for two different audiences. This way the product, in this case, meditation, reaches the largest number of people without offending anyone but also creates changes in each program or publication’s message in significant ways.
With the rise of mindfulness meditation this separation is even more apparent. Because mindfulness practice mostly involves some kind of daily life activity, the act of formal sitting is sometimes not even necessary. In this way one does not have to create a separate time and space for meditative practice. The supplemental magazine to Shambhala’s Mindful website, called Mindful makes clear that “the practices and techniques you will learn about in our pages are for everybody. No religion, belief, or political inclination is required. There’s no need to sign on anyone’s dotted line. Everyone is born with mindfulness, awareness, and compassion” (3). This booklet is a one-time free compilation with articles and tips about how to apply mindfulness to life situations like eating, relationships, financial management, time management, and being more effective in work. The website, however, updates news about mindfulness daily– from teachers’ new books and ideas to new ways mindfulness is being used in daily life in societies around the world. It offers mindfulness-based approaches to many aspects of modern life as well as offers a chance for social networking with other mindfulness practitioners. These endeavors of Shambhala Publications, including the one-time magazine supplement, website, and recent The Mindfulness Revolution book, are entirely practical about mindfulness.
The second example of the rise of mindfulness meditation is the Mindfulness Research GuideWebsite (MRG). The founder of this site, David Black, hopes for this website to be a comprehensive research guide and electronic source that provides information on the scientific study of mindfulness. Black has undertaken this task in order to keep researchers and practitioners up to date on current research and to have a centralized location specifically for mindfulness studies. Resources include publications broken down by month and year and any research that uses empirical measurement tools for mindfulness. This list is divided by five different sets of measurement tools and lists articles that contain research on each. There is also a list of research centers that have mindfulness studies as part of their central mission.
The definition of mindfulness that Black is working with mentions Buddhism:
“What we currently term mindfulness in the area of contemplative science, and the corresponding techniques of its cultivation, stem from Eastern introspective psychological practices, specifically Buddhist psychology, which made reference to the concept over 2,500 years ago . . . As the concept of mindfulness was gradually introduced into the realm of Western science, many thought mindfulness and its associated meditation practices – meditation is one method used to develop mindfulness – were esoteric, bound to religious beliefs, and a capacity attainable only by certain people. However, several decades of research methodology and scientific discovery have defrayed these myths; mindfulness is now widely considered to be an inherent quality of human consciousness.”
This site specifically links mindfulness with the empirical scientific study of its effects. Both of these sites promote mindfulness as divorced from Buddhism. The Buddha is given credit for founding mindfulness but that is, for the most part, the only mention of Buddhism. As well mindfulness does not seem to be related to liberation or Enlightenment in the Buddhist sense. The point of the practice and benefits are completely mundane. These ideas about mindfulness in daily life and without Buddhism are clear about their definitions, how to practice, and the benefits of practice. Taking the Buddhism out of mindfulness means the practice can be studied in a scientific way and mundane benefits can be tested and hypothesized about.
Modern Buddhism and Reinterpretation
Studies of Buddhist modernism have recently become a rich sub-genre within Buddhist studies. There are many angles from which one can approach this phenomenon—through colonial contexts in Asia, transnational networks, studies of Buddhist adaptations to Western countries, writings of modern Buddhists, and extrapolations about Buddhist modernism in general. There have been few theoretical writings about Buddhist modernism as much of the work that has been done focuses on particular contexts and case studies. I contribute to the study of Buddhist modernism through studying transnational networks and connecting this with wider implications for the study of Buddhist modernism in general. I analyze modern Buddhism as a spectrum of ideas and discourses and a series of reinterpretations. Below I will describe the history of the term and major characteristics of Buddhist modernism. The history of modern Buddhism is tied up with Orientalist constructions of Buddhism during the colonial period.
In the 1970s Heinz Bechert was the first to coin the term ‘modern’ Buddhism and use this as a distinct category. He divided the Buddhist tradition into three time periods of canonical, traditional, and modern. Canonical Buddhism represents the time of the Buddha, when the early community was becoming established, and when the canon was not yet fixed. Traditional Buddhism is a much longer period of time that begins with the popularization of Buddhism in India under the patronage of King Asoka, and follows through the Age of Kingdoms in Southeast Asia. It is characterized by a relationship between sangha and king where the king is the foremost patron of the sangha and the monastic community legitimates his reign. The modern Buddhist period emerged as Western knowledge and missionaries arrived in Buddhist countries. Bechert finds this is characterized by a rationalization of the tradition, scripturalism, demythologization of cosmology, and accommodation to Protestant critics of Buddhism.
Donald Lopez, in A Modern Buddhist Bible, has updated this genealogy of Buddhist modernism. He pinpoints the moment modern Buddhism begins and traces the history of this movement throughout Asia through institutions and transnational networks of actors. He locates the beginning of modern Buddhism during a debate between a Sri Lankan monk and a missionary. He argues this was the first time a monk engaged in serious debate with another religious representative and defended Buddhism as a distinct religion. This debate was publicized and news of it reached American Henry Steel Olcott. He and his Theosophical Society traveled to Sri Lanka to uplift the cause of Sri Lankan Buddhists against Christian missionaries. He found a promising disciple there named Dharmapala. Dharmapala later split with the Theosophical Society and founded his own institution called the Maha Bodhi Society. This organization began in order to renovate and reclaim the site of the Buddha’s Enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, India, for Buddhists. He enlisted the help of like thinkers from Sri Lanka and other Buddhist countries. Lopez traces the connections and networks created through this Maha Bodhi society throughout the Buddhist world. A new consciousness was being raised about the history and distinctness of Buddhism, and the need to protect and save it became crucial. Lopez locates Buddhists in China, Japan, Thailand, and Tibet and their main actors, and the particular characteristics and creation of Buddhist modernism in each location.
There is one main characteristic, however, that marks the shift from premodern to modern Buddhism, and this concerns the relationship between the laity and monastic community. Within traditional Buddhism there has been a strict separation in roles of these two communities. In modern Buddhism this becomes more blurred with laity taking on increasing roles of authority and infringing upon what once were exclusively monastic activities such as world-renunciation and meditation. There are many characteristics of modern Buddhism that depend on location and time period. Therefore scholars emphasize some aspects over others depending on the nature of their project. Scholars note that many of the ‘Protestant Buddhism,’ characteristics of Buddhism in modernity. These are the characteristics which mimic Protestant missionaries who influenced Buddhists on the island. These include self-authority, increase role of laity, social activism, and emphasizing aspects of Buddhism that cohere with pragmatism, humanism, and universalism.
Main characteristics of modern Buddhism include emphasizing the rational aspects of Buddhism such as the empirical methods of internal investigation used during meditation, a focus on equality and the increased role of women, a rejection of ritual, and a return to a pristine past of the tradition. Modern Buddhism can also include the characteristics of disenchantment, rejection of centralization of the sangha and state-controlled Buddhism, as well as the rise of new hybrid Buddhist movements.
One of the recent debates about Buddhist modernism can be summed up by the question: how modern is modern Buddhism? Some scholars have depicted Buddhist modernism as a radical break with the past that was caused by the arrival of missionaries and colonialists. In reaction to this other scholars have tried to show the continuities of Buddhism and the ways that Asian Buddhists are able to create their own histories. The middle ground in this debate, and the one that I subscribe to is to think of modern Buddhism as a reinterpretation that is both somewhat continuous with the past but accommodates to outside forces.
Cautions for continuity within the history of Buddhism are necessary and useful but not all Buddhism can be seen as continuous with the past. Reinterpretation captures both the idea of maintaining some aspects of tradition while noting changes.
Kenneth Folk: A New Model for Teaching Meditation in the West
Kenneth Folk is a new model for teaching meditation in the West through his teaching methods, use of technology, and openness about earning his living by being a dhamma teacher. He has one-on-one sessions using the online video chat application, Skype, changing the way meditation is taught. He doesn’t lead retreats frequently or advocate the necessity of retreats because he finds the Western Buddhist culture is moving away from the ‘professional yogi’ type. Kenneth Folk calls his younger self a professional yogi who would attend retreat after retreat, only stopping to make some money for the next one. But nowadays there are many more householders making major progress practicing in their daily lives. He doesn’t teach much theory either but focuses on the guided meditation and the method of noting aloud. He is amazed by the efficacy of the Buddha’s teachings if they are presented correctly—he believes that noting aloud is an easy way to make progress.
He sees his students, and people on his website and the Dharma Overground website becoming enlightened all the time. (Kenneth mainly uses his own site to promote his teachings to a wider audience. He used to comment frequently on the Dharma Overground site but wanted to be more involved in the conversation.)
He feels enlightenment is a biological reality, which is hard to deny. Folk asserts there is no other word for it besides Enlightenment because from his experience, he could see the progress within himself. His teachers’ validated his experiences with each level attained but he knew this was the case anyway. Folk believes that by the time a person achieves fourth path or Enlightenment one doesn’t need to be validated because the quest disappears. The seeking is over— it is not the end of life or development but the end of a need to get Enlightened.
Some critics have commented on his website that its nearly impossible to attain Enlightenment. He tells them to follow his methods to see for themselves and some of them become his students. It is clear to him where some of his students are on the path through conversations on skype but others are more opaque. So Folk looks at a constellation of factors— and admits he cannot know for sure.
Folk feels he can use Eastern or Western ideas in his teaching, bringing the best of both together. He likens this to a mixed martial arts style where whatever works survives and what does not gets tossed out. He calls this a ruthless unsentimentality of the Buddha’s teachings, as he would even dispense with the Buddha if need be.
During his skype teaching sessions, Folk and his students engage in an interactive meditation. I participated in a session with Folk, and he showed me the basics of how this works. First he goes through the 4 Foundations of Mindfulness, modeling his technique of noting outloud (First noting bodily sensations (Pressure, tightness, tension, release, coolness, warmth), then feeling-tone (unpleasant, pleasant, or neutral), mind states (Investigation, curiosity, happiness, anxiety, amusement, sadness), and then thoughts (planning thought, anticipating thought, worrying thought, imaging thought, remembering thought). Folk even wants to experiment with people meditating in small groups or teams because he finds this noting aloud technique so useful. He explains how this would work and its benefits on the Buddhist Geeks website:
“I want to set people up in teams and have them meditate together. Whether it’s on the phone or in person, it doesn’t matter. What is important is that for the entire half-hour you actually pay attention to something, you actually objectify something, whether it’s body sensations or feeling tones or mind states or thoughts, and report aloud in real-time.”
Folk’s next technique is to use what he calls ‘the bystander,’ where one notes aloud all of what one is experiencing but always beginning with the phrase ‘see how it.’ So for example one would say ‘see how it feels heat,’ ‘see how it itches.’ He explains this in one of his interviews on the Buddhist Geeks website:
“’See how it stands. See how it feels revulsion. See how it feels amusement. See how it feels annoyance. See how it feels free.’ Whatever the feeling is, that is being noted and in that noting is freedom, disembeddedness. This is where all of the dust motes are allowed to fly around or hit the ground. I’m not attached to any of them, and there is the awareness that is also clearly not me that knows all this.”
Folk uses different techniques for different people depending on where they are in their practice, so it is not always the same, but these are the basics of the interactive meditation sessions. Using terms like ‘maxing out cognitive load’ and ‘processing power,’ Folk speaks in a way that shows his bias toward the efficient, pragmatic, and understandable. In another interview on the Buddhist Geeks site he emphasizes this saying “My sense is that most of what is done isn’t necessary. I’m always trying to strip it down to its bare essentials and to be as efficient as possible.”
The other reason Folk is a new model for Western meditation teachers is his directness about making a living as a teacher. He states clearly on his website:
“I do earn my living from the cash gifts my students send. This is called dana (the traditional Buddhist system of providing a livelihood for dharma teachers by offering gifts). . . This teaching will be self-sustaining when I can average $70 for each hour (or $35 for each half-hour) I spend working one-on-one with a student. When you send more than that, you are a benefactor student; you are helping a student who sends less. When you give less than $70 an hour, you are a scholarship student; you are being helped by a student who gave more.”
He has chosen $70 an hour because he hopes to earn the same as a New York City school teacher— a job for which he is trained but would rather teach meditation. He would like to spend 20 hours teaching on skype and 20 hours working on his website, and if he can make about $70 an hour this will be close to what a New York City schoolteacher would earn. He writes “I believe that when Western dharma teachers can earn a moderate, middle-class income by dharma teaching alone, the dharma will have truly arrived in the West.”
Therefore through his use of technology, deemphasis on retreat, one-on-one teaching methods, and directness about dana and earning a living teaching meditation, Kenneth Folk represents a new model for Western dhamma teachers. He hopes that his model can be replicated by others and so far has found the system has worked.
Comparing and Contrasting Modern Western Buddhism with New Age
In this post I explore this idea of modern Western Buddhism and the ways it can be comparable to forms of New Age. Clearly Buddhism as a tradition is not comparable to New Age religions as the former is an ancient religion with roots across the globe. But the ways some people and groups are engaging with Buddhism in its Western forms can be more comparable to New Age.
First for an overview of New Age forms of religion, here are some of the general characteristics. New age religions are united in the quest for the perfection of the self and to realize a ‘higher self’ through experiences of transformation. The term refers to a wide range of practices and beliefs perceived as an alternative to mainstream Western society. The fundamental ideas are ancient in origin but are reinterpreted for modern age. Many new age seekers focus on private forms of religion and do not join religious organizations. They are eclectic in their search, reading new age books and attending various workshops and lectures. Thus New Age religious people draw on and integrate a diverse selection of existing traditions. The New Age Movement has been dominated by American cultural and spiritual values. Some believe that the idea of New Age has become commercialized into a spiritual marketplace catering to tastes of individualistic culture. This is why New Age religions are sometimes called Self Religion (Adapted from Esposito, World Religions Today, Chapter 8).
Similarities of New Age and Buddhism include a lack of dogmatism and stress on self-authority, and the idea that human problems and their solution are located in the consciousness. Other similarities include the use of meditation, the idea that religious teachings and practices are just a raft—not sacred in themselves, stress on human potential over an external deity, interdependence of all things, and belief in rebirth. But differences include that New Age lacks the rational philosophy of Buddhism, focuses on joy rather than suffering, and contains the idea that one is one’s own teacher rather than Buddhism’s tradition of lineage, initiations, and direct personal transmission. Much of the New Age movement ideas are self-based, in radical distinction from the Buddhist teachings of no-self and emptiness (Cush, “British Buddhism and the New Age” (205)).
Steven Bruce’s Religion in the Modern World has a chapter on the New Age and its role amongst contemporary religious forms. He finds that for New Age religions there are largely differing degrees of involvement so that for one person it could be reading a book while for others it is a change of worldview that could be comparable to conversion in a more traditional religion (200). This can be seen in the range of Western forms of Buddhism as well with what scholar Thomas Tweed has labeled ‘nightstand’ Buddhists to those Westerners who spend their lives in monastic robes. Similar to New Age religions any person could become knowledgeable about an aspect of Buddhism or meditation through reading or attending a meditation retreat or session at a local center infrequently. But for others the teachings of Buddhism will enact a change in worldview that can lead to much more involvement.
One of the ways New Age and Buddhism break in the modern world is their orientation toward science. Modern Buddhists argue that the tradition is rational and coheres with science. Bruce notes that one of the most striking features of the New Age is its deviation from a rational scientific worldview. He writes
“many New Agers combine criticism of the scientific and medical establishments with the belief that they are doing what will someday be recognized as science. Scientific explanations are not yet available because prejudice and professional interest prevent scientists from asking the right questions” (209).
He concludes that “New Age science has more in common with religion than with science” (210). Bruce calls the New Age a product of its time as it exemplifies modernity by praising consumerism and individualism and takes them to an extreme. But New Age does not have the cohesion or discipline of a complete tradition and worldview, so it is limited in its impact. However, some who are truly interested in the Buddhist tradition can dig deeper and find a whole tradition, not a piecemeal set of practices. But much like modern Buddhism in the West, with New Age the effect cannot be judged by how many people call themselves Buddhists as many of the people interested in both regard them as additions and complements to their lives or other religious practices. But both movements find themselves stripped of their more esoteric parts and accepted into mainstream culture.
Steve Bruce in another interesting book God is Dead: Secularization in the West writes that
“Britons are not becoming Muslims and what they are borrowing from Hinduism and Buddhism are the least theocratic and ritualistic elements. They are not worshipping Shiva or Vishnu or Ganesh. They are not following the paths of Buddhist monasticism. They are adopting the most plastic philosophical strands and then adapting them. Central to those adaptations is the Western stress on the authority of the autonomous individual consumer” (139).
So Bruce is quite negative about the superficiality of Western appropriation of Eastern religions because he is only looking at the New Age phenomenon, not committed practitioners or Western monastics. To some extent these superficial appropriations have influenced and affect the committed practitioners but this group also takes into account more serious ideas than he is discussing.
This idea of Western forms of Buddhism not only can be compared with New Age religions, but also can be analyzed looking at how they interconnect, and have created a dialogue. Most of these connections are seen to be quite negative, like Bruce’s, as the examples below show. Jeremy Carette and Richard King in Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion, strongly argue against the appropriation and commodification of Asian religions. They write that aspects of Asian religions have been “translated into a modern western context, but there is generally a failure to appreciate that this is not the total picture” (87). Carette and King note a pick and mix attitude of new age that reflects orientalist approaches and colonialist attitudes towards Asia— the ultimate commodification of others’ cultures, they are available for selective appropriation, repacking and reselling. Buddhism in this context of New Age, becomes purged of its teachings on ethics and its transformative message, and can then be presented as centered upon the individual self rather than the no-self doctrine that is actually at the center (105). Thus the cultural and philosophical subtleties are flattened out when translated into western New Age circles.
Donald Lopez is another voice arguing the loss of the tradition of Buddhism as encompassing all of life. In his Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed sends a message to the general reader about the reduction of Buddhism in the modern era. Lopez finds that those Americans interested in Buddhism aren’t getting the full picture of the tradition. He asserts that much of the tradition has been eliminated in the modern period. Lopez sees the Buddha becoming “just a nice person,” and Buddhism becoming a mental technology. He wrote this book to educate the wider public on the recent construction of this dialogue and the much broader tradition that Buddhism has been for a long period of time. He wants to show that Buddhism has become a technique for self-help when its ultimate aim is a radical reorientation to the world.
Another author, Dharmachari Vishvapani, laments the perceived connection between Buddhism and New Age. In his “Buddhism and the New Age,” which was published in The Western Buddhist Review, he writes that Buddhism and the New Age are very different. He finds that “They have emerged from very different histories, travelling on different historical trajectories and based on different philosophical assumptions.” He warns that New Age and Buddhism should keep their distance, and not be seen as intertwined as they have been. Their histories and philosophies are too different to remain together and it is Buddhism that would mostly be at a loss in this situation. “A New Age Buddhism would be a reductio ad absurdum of Buddhist tradition; it would be a Buddhism constructed from Western fantasies of the East and post-Christian yearnings for salvation.”
So these authors argue that the intermingling of Buddhism and New Age would be a loss for Buddhism, and a loss for the modern world to lose the message of the Buddha in its entirety. One source I found offered a different perspective—a positive one for the future of Buddhist and New Age interconnections. David McMahan, in the conclusion to his The Making of Buddhist Modernism, describes an uncertain future for Buddhism in North America wherein, if Buddhism accommodates too much, it will fade into New Age spirituality. But McMahan realizes that not all forms of transplanted Buddhism need to be conservative. Just as in Asian countries, Buddhism can accommodate to popular culture to reach a large population. McMahan advises that a mix of individualized forms of spirituality with the more serious traditional monasticism and socially engaged forms has the greatest viability for the future of Buddhist modernism. He holds up as model institutions John Daido Loori Roshi’s Zen Mountain Monastery and Soka Gakkai for their adaptations to American culture and discourses of modernity while maintaining elements of the traditional. The Dalai Lama and Thich Nhat Hanh are also seen to intermingle complex Buddhist teachings with New Age-like spirituality.
New Age and Buddhism in the West are entangled and have an ambiguous relationship. They have important similarities and differences, and their connections are seen as both positive and negative. Critics note that Buddhism is a whole tradition that looses some of its parts when associated with New Age. But others find that adapting to New Age forms creates a more mainstream Buddhism acceptable to the West. But a New Agey kind of Buddhism is at one end of the spectrum on the scale of adoption of a Buddhist worldview in Western countries. What has not been discussed in these sources is the monastic end of the spectrum, or committed Buddhist laypeople in the West. These Buddhists understand that the tradition of Buddhism is more than a set of practices, and appreciate its subtleties and complexity. But Lopez, King and Carrette, Bruce, et. al. are more stricken by the appropriations and inappropriations they see within pop culture and religious circles.
New Trends in ‘Western’ Buddhism
I think it is clear by now that a new phase of scholarship dealing with Buddhism in Western countries has taken hold. Gone are the days when scholars would list characteristics of a new Western Buddhism such as egalitarianism, feminization, democratization, social engagement, and pragmatism. Another major theme of scholarship from this earlier era created typologies of Buddhist communities, such as convert and ethnic Buddhists. I know a number of scholars who stopped being interested in this emerging field because of the repetition of these same typologies and trends within the scholarship. Many people were asking: is there anything new to say about Buddhism in the West?
Well now it is obvious there is much more to discuss, and not only much more, but in much more complex ways and with many more voices contributing. As this second generation of scholarship is emerging, there are new and complex phenomenon to explore as well as interesting ways to approach these. One approach is exemplified in David McMahan’s new book The Making of Buddhist Modernism. He uses the idea of hybridity to understand the reinterpretations that Buddhism in North America is experiencing. Donald Lopez is also thinking about modern Buddhism in interesting ways, noting the role of meditation and thinking of this phenomenon in a cross-cultural way. Thus the study of Buddhism in the West is now at a crucial time when more people are thinking about these interesting issues in more and more nuanced ways.
But it is not only scholars who are contributing to this new dialogue. There is a whole close-knit community thriving on debate and discussion of a diversity of issues almost daily. This community of course, is the buddhoblogosphere. Tackling similar issues as recent scholars such as race and racism, the dynamic between culture and religion, and the secularization of meditation teachings, among others. This community comments on online and print Buddhist media and is more and more moving toward incorporating ideas of recent scholarship. The buddhobogosphere is on the cutting edge of what is going on within Buddhism in the West, and they will have increasing importance for scholarship about contemporary Buddhism.
There are many new trends to pick up on within contemporary or global Buddhism. Here is a list I have come up with:
1) New Age vs. Hard Core Dhamma
One of the most interesting new issues I have read and heard about is this backlash against more ‘soft’ and ‘self-help’ type dhamma books. Many authors are now calling themselves hard-core and intense as an opposition to this earlier work. Hard-Core authors include Daniel Ingraham, Mastering the Core Teachings of the Buddha: An Unusually Hard Core Dharma, Brad Warner, Hard Core Zen, Noah Levine, Against the Stream. The changes this second-generation of dhamma teachers are making are very interesting and revealing about the state of Buddhist practice in Western countries.
2) Mindfulness Meditation and the Secularization of Meditation
Jon Kabat-Zinn is a big part of this dialogue and began the movement of using mindfulness for practical purposes. Along with Kabat-Zinn and his studies published in medical journals, there are new studies coming out about mindfulness in daily life such as Daniel Siegel’s The Mindful Brain. The debate about this topic centers on the question: is anything crucial lost when meditation becomes divorced of the Buddhist worldview? This connects with the idea of meditation as a ‘universal practice.’ The argument surrounding this issue concludes that by stripping Buddhist teachings to the practical benefits of meditation, it becomes something universal, without the different Buddhist cultures getting in the way. But I wonder if anything can be universal? Isn’t secular meditation just another cultural idea?
3) Is Buddhism a religion? (Buddhism and religious identity)
Recently there have been a few news articles (for example) dealing with the idea of Buddhism and religious identity. These usually include a Christian person who also practices meditation. They either consider themselves both Christian and Buddhist or think of Buddhist meditation as a way to enhance their Christian faith. There has been some backlash to these ideas of bi-religious identities and the idea that Buddhism is not a religion in the buddhoblogosphere. Why is it that Buddhism has this idea of non-religiosity around it? Could it be because of the fact that meditation has become divorced from the Buddhist worldview?
4) The dialogue of Buddhism and science/psychology
This dialogue has a long history and long list of books on the subject. The Mind and Life Dialogues with the Dalai Lama through The Mind and Life Institute have helped to popularize the notion that there is a connection between Buddhism and science. Of course scholarly work on this has already been done by Donald Lopez in his book Buddhism and Science, but this isn’t the final word on the matter, there are many more angles to be dealt with. This dialogue currently deals mostly with neuroscience, but the field of mental health is also popularly connected with Buddhist meditation. Jack Kornfield has most recently written about this in A Wise Heart. The list of books on psychology and Buddhism is also growing with different angles from the different Buddhist traditions. How does the dialogue of Buddhism and science/mental health relate to the history of Western perceptions of Buddhism?
5) Buddhism and youth
Since Sumi Loundon’s first collection of essays by Buddhist youth, Blue-Jean Buddha, this has been a topic of interest in dhamma circles. The idea that baby-boomer Buddhists would soon have to pass on leadership roles to a newer generation led to some changes in infrastructure of meditation centers. Many centers now have youth meditation retreats and ‘30 and Under’ social gatherings in order to foster a sense of community so younger people keep coming back. Since then Loundon has published another collection, The Buddha’s Apprentices, and Diana Winston has written a book of dhamma advice for teens, Wide Awake. How is Buddhism in Western countries changing as a result of this new population?
6) Buddhism and pop-culture
This is a topic many people are interested in, and it has been popularized by the unique blog, the worst horse. Scott Mitchell has written a conference paper about this, and few scholars mention these kinds of things in passing. I think this is an important topic, however, because this is the knowledge with which undergraduates come into Buddhism 101 classes, and this is what they want to understand.
7) Buddhism and happiness
With Matthieu Ricard first being called the Happiest Man in the World, and then most recently Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche, it is clear that a positive dialogue between Buddhism and happiness has been created. The Dalai Lama’s The Art of Happiness was probably what started this trend, and it continues today with a recent weekend of teachings about discovering happiness through Buddhism. This is a complete reverse from the late 19th and early 20th century perception by Euro-Americans of Buddhism. Buddhism was considered a pessimistic religion that focused on suffering—how did it become popular a set of teachings that could bring happiness?
8) Modern-day commentaries of traditional Buddhist teachings
This is a very recent development and includes works such as Matthew Flickstein, Swallowing the River Ganges, Richard Shankman, The Experience of Samadhi, Ven. Analayo, Satipatthana: The Direct Path to Realization. Contemporary Buddhists are going back to the classical texts and explaining them to a modern audience who might not have the time or inclination to read such writings, but want to know about the ‘original’ Buddhist teachings. This caters to the audience of practitioners who are hungry to learn about these texts. But this also speaks to the idea of hybridity and reinterpretation. What is being enhanced and emphasized in these new commentaries?
Many of these issues are of course, interrelated, and all are ripe and of interest for academic reflection. New scholars are commenting on these topics in blogs, conferences, and short articles for Buddhist magazines, but there have been few full-length articles let alone books covering this very contemporary stuff. A lot of this research has to be done online, taking into account the conversation of the buddhoblogosphere and other current Buddhist media outlets.
9) Prison Dharma
Buddhism in prisons has become an emerging field of engagement for Buddhist teachers and practitioners. Many teachers do service in prisons and have written communication with prisoners in their areas. The Prison Dharma Network, founded by former prisoner, Fleet Maull, now serves as a contact to provide books to prisoners, training programs on mindfulness for prisoners and facilitators, and a press that publishes books about prison dharma. The prisoners have also taken to writing with a number of recent memoirs in the form of articles and books written from behind bars (more on this in a future post). Recent articles have posted statistics on the high percentage of Buddhists in prisons compared to the rest of the American population. I think this topic speaks to ideas of social engagement within Western Buddhism, and shows the development and success of such projects. In the earlier generation scholars spoke of an interest in engagement, and a new social activism within Buddhism in Western countries, but with prison dharma one has a concrete example of what is being done and the results of the program. Why has this become popular reading in Western Buddhist circles? Possibly because it shows very practically how Buddhist teachings can help in daily life. This is daily life magnified, but it shows the ways Buddhist practices aid in change for the better.
10) Racially Diverse Buddhism
There has been an effort among many sanghas to incorporate a diversity of people by adding ‘People of Color’ nights to weekly or monthly schedules. As well this has received some attention in writing. Colorlines magazine published an article titled “Dharma and diversity: the changing face of U.S. Buddhism has raised issues of race and privilege within a spiritual practice that includes new immigrants, communities of color, and the trendy elite.” Unfortunately this article is not for public access. The Pluralism Project also has an article online about this topic called Racial Diversity in Buddhism in the U.S. A more personal, primary source for this topic is the collection of essays edited by Hilda Guitiérrez Baldoquín, titled Dharma, Color, and Culture: New Voices in Western Buddhism. And of course the buddhoblogosphere has much to say about this as a recent slew of posts showed. Thus this is an important issue both from a sociological academic point of view, and personally for practitioners seeking diverse communities. It shows how Buddhism in Western countries is evolving, and the development of the old typology of ‘convert’ and ‘ethnic’ Buddhists. Within the buddhoblogosphere many say that not much has changed, there is still a marginalization of Asian Americans among white/convert circles. This is an issue very particular to Western countries that does not have a real precedent within Asian Buddhism.
An Analysis of Discourses of Meditation: Focus on Universalization
From the beginning of the Western encounter with Buddhism, the tradition was depicted as universal, as a religion that rose above its Indian origins and pan-Asian dissemination. 19th century scholars constructed a Buddhism that was not created within a specific time and place like other world religions but rather sprung from the individual mind of the Buddha. His message was thought to be universal, and it was ignored that the teachings were given shape by particular languages and mores of India around 500BCE. Because of this, the notion of a cosmological or ritualized Buddhism did not enter into the construction of Buddhism for many early converts. These practices are consequently seen as cultural and national, having been artificially grafted onto a pure, universal, world religion.
Today Western Buddhists are still discussing the universal nature of Buddhism. Barry Boyce, in an editorial in Shambhala Sun Magazine titled “Beyond American Buddhism,” calls for a Buddhism that is not adapted to a particular culture but instead can transcend the cultures of East and West. Thus universalism has been a thread woven through the interpretation of Buddhism since the first encounters with the West.
Stephen Batchelor is a well-known author and lay Buddhist meditation teacher who perceives Buddhism as a way to live one’s life rather than as a religion. He seeks to create a Buddhism Without Beliefs, as his most well-known book is called. In this book he laments that the Buddha’s awakening has been interpreted as a mystical experience or revelation, whereas he believes that the Buddha’s Enlightenment is actually composed of his findings along the path and the teachings he discovered. Batchelor is disappointed with the history of Buddhism and how it has become an institutionalized religion. He instead finds that Buddhist teachings are not a system of beliefs but rather a challenge to act.
Jack Kornfield, in an article in Tricycle Magazine, provides a similar way of dividing Buddhism into a religion and a way of life. He finds there is a Buddhism that functions as a religion for people who participate in rituals and merit-making activities; but then there is a Buddhism based on the fundamental teachings of the Buddha, which is more like a science of the mind. Today in Asia and the West he finds that Buddhism functions as a religion and a science and he believes both are ways to meet the needs of humanity.
Because Buddhist meditation, especially vipassana, has been divided out from and is seen as separate from the Buddhist religion, it can be considered an example of a portable and exportable version of an indigenous Asian tradition. It has become portable because of its non-specific religiosity and few institutional connections. Among Western Buddhists, vipassana meditation has been popular because it has been interpreted as having this universal, transcultural quality. This kind of thinking is certainly true in some American Buddhist circles. In Wendy Cadge’s study of a convert community in Cambridge, Massachusetts, titled Heartwood, she finds that the Buddha’s teachings are primarily conveyed through meditation instruction. Many Western vipassana meditation teachers adapt and present the teachings in a Westernized way so that practitioners often call themselves vipassana meditation students rather than students of Theravada Buddhism.
Recently however, Western Buddhists within this tradition have been reconsidering this decision to decontextualize Buddhist practices. Buddhadharma, the popular American Buddhist magazine, featured a forum among Buddhist teachers titled: ‘Too Much Meditation?’ The moderator, Barry Boyce, states that Buddhism and meditation are nearly synonymous among Western practitioners. Buddhism is considered a philosophy divorced from cultural and religious trappings, which only attached to the religion later in its history.
Thus meditation, as seen through the example of the vipassana tradition, has become a universal element of the tradition. Because of this, practitioners of meditation can now debate the relationship of their practice to the Buddhist tradition. The history of the Buddhist tradition’s movement West has shown the primacy of meditation. This aspect of Buddhism, through its depiction as universal, shows how the tradition can be pulled apart—certain parts divorced from the whole.
Buddhism and the Category of Religion
My husband, William, and I once went to a ceremony for giving the 3 refuges and 5 precepts at the Cambridge Insight Meditation Center (CIMC) in Massachusetts, USA. There were many questions as to the implications of taking on these refuges and precepts before the ceremony started. People wanted to know if they made this vow to keep these precepts, and then they broke them, what would happen? They would feel disappointed with themselves, so maybe they shouldn’t take them? They wondered if they were becoming Buddhists now since they were taking the 3 refuges. The teacher, Michael Liebenson Grady, graciously explained to them the implications of the ceremony. They were proclaiming that they found the Buddhist teachings useful and would try to abide by the 5 precepts as a way to guide their lives. I remembered this moment when taking the 3 refuges and 5 precepts for the 3rd time in one day at Wat Rampoeng. Watching the Thai people, who participate in this ceremony during every merit-making festivity, Buddhist holiday, and blessing, the contrast was evident. Obviously this is second nature to these Buddhists and they didn’t think about or question the implications of their recitations. Of course this has to do with the differences between converts, sympathizers, and born Buddhist. However, I think it also has to do with Buddhism and the ideas surrounding the category of religion.
Through even a cursory survey of contemporary Buddhist writings (and bloggings) it is easy to see that the category of ‘religion’ is defined in extreme ways by Western Buddhists. In these Western Buddhist writings there is hardly ever a definition of religion given, but it is easy for the reader to see that it is something quite negative for the writer. Religion coheres with the ‘cultural,’ and is defined as superstitious, irrational, and composed of institutions, and national practices.
Thus this idea of religion makes Westerners interested in Buddhism much more sensitive to such things as rituals. As seen at CIMC, the repeating of the three refuges and five precepts is taken very seriously. Within this is also the idea of conversion to the Buddhist religion. For people used to Judeo-Christian religious ideas conversion occurs through ritual. Therefore taking the three refuges and five precepts is seen as a formal way of saying ‘I am a Buddhist.’
In a conversation with a Thai-Lao/American monk, Phra Eo, residing at Wat Buddhahaksa outside of Madison, Wisconsin, he emphasized that conversion through receiving the three refuges is a modern Buddhist invention. He said that reciting the three refuges is now similar to the Christian practice of Baptism for American Buddhism. Westerners think they need go through an initiation process in order to formally become Buddhists but in traditional Buddhism there is no such ceremony or sign. These ideas of Buddhism and the category of religion are carried over into meditation retreat settings and meditation centers in Western countries. In a recent dissertation using fieldwork from Goenka retreats in North America and Israel, Michal Pagis writes that the participants in these retreats practiced a form of meditation that is based on Buddhist texts, but her informants did not call themselves Buddhists and were not very familiar with Buddhist teachings. In another very interesting dissertation by Joseph Cheah on race and religion in American Buddhism, he discusses how vipassana meditation in America is not considered a religion because it is not a system of faith where one affirms allegiance to an omniscient God.
These ideas are again brought to Thailand by the foreign meditators. I have recorded how, especially at international meditation centers, foreign meditators are weary of rituals, fearing participation equals conversion. For example, some of the English-speaking participants in international meditation retreats in Thailand expect to practice meditation only, and are very sensitive about participating in Buddhism as a ‘religion.’ They are wary of bowing to Buddha statues, making offerings to monks, and taking the precepts in a formal ceremony. Thus Buddhism as a religion for this type of international meditator consists of ritual, ‘cultural’ activities, hierarchies, and faith. They came to Thailand with the idea that Buddhism was not a ‘religion’ but a ‘way of life’ that consisted of meditation and the teachings of the Buddha that one can accept or not.
But perhaps a suitable compromise can be found in the ideas of British monk, Ajahn Jayasaro. In a dhamma talk called “Suffering and Kamma” given to a group in Malaysia in 2007, he affirms that Buddhism is a religion— it is just a different kind of religion. It is not a belief-based religion, but an education-based religion. He demonstrates this through the example of the Buddha’s life story, which often contains what might be perceived as magical and supernatural elements. One can believe all parts of this story or take it as a story intended for teaching only. But the point is, belief doesn’t matter as long as one gets benefit from whichever interpretation one chooses. Ajahn Jayasaro asserts that other religions follow a top-down model as one must believe in a God as the defining factor of religious affiliation. But Buddhism is a bottom-up religion. One starts from the human condition. In Buddhism, Ajahn Jayasaro believes, we leave aside those things, those high-up beliefs, and start with the basic ingredients of humanity.
Ajahn Jayasaro offers a possible solution here, yet there remains continued ambiguity over what it means to be Buddhist. This can be evidenced in a conversation I had on a recent retreat. One middle-aged man from Canada staying a few days at Wat Pah Nanachat discussed with me his plans to become a monk in Burma. He said, “I want to be a monk but I am not a Buddhist.” This would-be monk admitted this sounded strange but he felt he couldn’t call himself a Buddhist because he didn’t know what that would mean and also believed the identity marker meant all different kinds of things to different people. Thus these ideas about the category of religion, taken from Judeo-Christian ideas of religion in Western countries, have crossed over into the Buddhist tradition. This can be seen in many different types of meditation retreat settings in Thailand.
An Analysis of Discourses of Meditation: Focus on Happiness
There has been a connection in popular media between mainly Tibetan Buddhism and happiness. But recently the Theravada tradition has become a part of the Buddhism and happiness trend mainly through their manuals on meditation. Most notable in this regard is Ajahn Brahm’s book Mindfulness, Bliss and Beyond. (I have also seen the exact same book in Thailand titled Happiness Through Meditation.) In addition to this work there is also evidence of this discourse of Theravada meditation and happiness in the lineage of famous Thai teachers, Ajahn Chah and Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. But it is Ajahn Brahm that is part of this trend of linking meditation and happiness through the absorption states known as the jhanas. In his book and other new books, like Practicing the Jhanas, the emphasis is on the pleasure of meditation, the this-worldly bliss.
In describing the content of his book, Ajahn Brahm introduces the link between meditation and happiness. He describes Part 1 of the book, titled ‘The Happiness of Meditation,’ as targeted toward those who want to meditate in order to relieve some of the heaviness of life but will not go deeper into what he describes as ‘the bliss states and enlightenment.’ Here he wants to demonstrate that, even for the beginner, meditation can generate considerable happiness (3). The second part of the book, titled ‘To Bliss and Beyond,’ is described as “a guided tour through the world of timeless Buddhist rapture. It describes how meditation literally implodes into the supreme bliss of the jhanas” (3).
Ajahn Brahm supports his argument for the link between meditation and happiness by referencing scientific studies. He writes, “Recent scientific studies support the assertions that meditation makes one happier and that Buddhist monks may be the happiest people of all. Therefore, anyone who wants a really good time should be a really good meditator. And if one wants the highest happiness of all, then go for nibbana (215).” Therefore Ajahn Brahm is attempting to reformulate people’s ideas about happiness— that happiness comes from meditation and that meditators are not only concentrating their mind but also seeking pleasure. He writes that especially the jhana states “can change your whole understanding of what is happiness . . . It literally blows your mind” (191).
In this book, Ajahn Brahm makes the argument that meditation should bring about happy states of mind and that meditators should not shy away from this. He argues for thinking about meditation in this way when he writes: “You deserve so much bliss. Why should you not? There’s nothing against it . . . jhanas have no bad side effects, they’re not illegal, and the Buddha specifically encouraged them” (34). Ajahn Brahm here is arguing against the idea that taking pleasure in meditation is not part of the path. The proponents of the vipassana-only methods of meditation are wary of the jhanas because they believe these concentrated states bring about too much pleasure causing obstacles to the progression toward insight meditation. But Ajahn Brahm asserts that this is actually a necessary part of the path: “Do not fear delight in meditation. Happiness in meditation is important! Moreover, you deserve to bliss out. Blissing out on the breath is an essential part of the path. So when delight does arise alongside the breath, cherish and guard it like a valuable treasure” (132).
The title of his chapter on the jhanas called ‘The Jhanas: Bliss upon Bliss upon Bliss’ indicates the emphasis on happiness through jhanas. He emphasizes this bliss because he finds that some meditators think that the pleasure of jhana cannot lead to the end of suffering and so are afraid of these states. He hopes in this book to prove that these states are profound and wonderful and that to experience them is crucial to achieve enlightenment. (130-131). He has a number of colorful quotes and phrases to describe the feeling of the jhana state. He describes a person entering jhana as having “such a great time that it is only with great difficulty that anyone can make you come out” (147), and the jhana experience as “radiant with otherworldly bliss” (127). He finds that the experience of jhana is unforgettable and a “bliss one never knew before” that “overturns one’s conception of happiness” (189). He asserts that even “falling in love is not as enjoyable as this” (189). Perhaps the most memorable description of the jhana state is this:
“One may have thought that the best sexual orgasm was something nice, but now one discovers that is trivial compared to the bliss of these jhana. Even after a yo-yo jhana {a jhana state that is unstable}, one often bursts into tears of happiness, crying at the most wonderful experience by far of one’s whole life” (151).
But it is not just the jhanas that Ajahn Brahm describes as blissful, it is also the act of watching the breath. He describes himself as a meditation junkie and meditation as “a dear old friend that you want to spend time with . . . And as for the meditation object, the breath, we’ve had such good times together, my breath and I. We’re the best of mates” (36). Thus he tries to inspire his readers to love meditation and a way to do this is to realize the happiness one can derive from it. He writes that
“ . . . one needs to put more value on developing delight when one is watching the breath, and cultivating that delight until it becomes a strong sense of beauty. For example, you may regard the breath as an old and well-loved friend with whom you have shared such wonderful times. Remembering those happy moments brings you joy, and that joy lets you look on the breath as beautiful” (140).
This this-worldly pleasure of the breath is used to motivate meditators to continue to progress to the higher concentrated states.
Ajahn Brahm also praises the joyfulness possible in mindfulness practices. Thus it is not just the breath and concentration states that bring pleasure, but also the mindfulness that accompanies meditation. He writes that “When you have developed powerful mindfulness, its like going out into a beautiful garden in the brilliant sunshine. Its energizing and inspiring . . . The experience of bright and focused awareness is wonderful and amazing! You see much more beauty and truth than you ever imagined” (61). He finds that when one possesses a large amount of mindfulness the world becomes more delightful and enchanting. Ajahn Brahm writes:
“Ordinary concrete becomes a masterpiece. A blade of grass literally shimmers with the most delightful and brilliant shades of fluorescent green. A twig metamorhoses into a boundless universe of shape, color, and structure. The petty becomes profound and the humdrum becomes heavenly under the sparkling energy of power mindfulness” (106).
More support of Ajahn Brahm’s intention to overturn people’s conceptions of Buddhism and meditation is his formulation of the Four Noble Truths, his description of enlightenment, and the path to get there. As usual with these basic Buddhist concepts, he places the stress on happiness. Ajahn Brahm writes that he introduces the Four Noble Truths in backwards order so that happiness comes first. His Four Noble Truth thus look like: 1) Happiness, 2) The path leading to happiness, 3) Unhappiness, 4) The cause of unhappiness. He acknowledges that some people might call this marketing, but he wants to emphasize the goal of Buddhism by placing it first (214-215). Thus Ajahn Brahm seeks to change not only the common view of happiness, but the common view of Theravada Buddhism, that it is mostly concerned with suffering, by instead making happiness the primary objective.
He finds the most helpful description of enlightenment can be found in the Dhammapada: ‘Nibbana is the highest happiness.’ He finds this is the most useful definition because it is straightforward but also appealing and explains why people have been striving for nibbana over the past 26 centuries. Ajahn Brahm argues that “Buddhism’s perennial teaching is how to be happier and happier, until one reaches the summit of all happiness in this very life: nibbana” (214). The focus here is that nibbana is the ultimate happiness but for those who are not inclined to take on the whole path, Ajahn Brahm asserts that just meditating will bring so much happiness. The whole path to nibbana or just the path of a meditator he writes “is a happy path, a blissful path, a blow-your-mind-with-ultimate-ecstasy path!” (257).
Other meditation teachers stress as well that in the Buddhist path there is a different kind of happiness than what most people are used to. It is not a happiness from momentary pleasure, but a happiness that comes from non-attachment and the knowledge of impermanence. In Seeing the Way Venerable Jagaro has an article titled “Happiness,” adapted from a dhamma talk at Perth in 1985. In this article he states that for Buddhists the happiness one can expect is that of “of non-attachment, no-self, of Buddha, of Enlightenment, it is a naturally joyful inner knowing, inner tranquility where one is ok without having control” (67). It is thus the happiness of acceptance and letting go.
In Towards Buddha-Dhamma, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu also argues for this different kind of happiness. He writes that
“The first fruit {of meditation} is a new kind of happiness that we have never had before. This happiness is not based on sense objects which are only the causes of emotional happiness and this in turn is nothing but potential suffering. The happiness derived from meditation is inexpressibly cool or calm. We may say that this is like the tasting of attainment of Nibbana . . .” (35).
He continues this idea of two kinds of happinesses in his ‘Happiness and Hunger.’ He writes that
“The happiness felt in the everyday lives of ordinary people is one meaning of happiness. Then, there is the other kind of happiness, the happiness that arises with the realization of the final goal of life. There are these two very different things, but we can call both of them ‘happiness.’” (93).
In this work he also writes that ordinary happiness occurs when a particular desire is satisfied. But the higher happiness of Buddhism is when there is no desire at all—when one is free from all wanting (94). This is similar to Ajahn Brahm’s argument that Buddhism is a religion of happiness. But Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and Ajahn Jagaro are not as emphatic as Ajahn Brahm in his Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond, which takes the discourse of Theravada Buddhism and happiness to a new level.
Ajahn Anan, student of Ajahn Chah, also talks about meditation as an experience, which offers a new and different kind of happiness. In his Simple Teachings on Higher Truths he writes that
“Sometimes we might even experience a deep inner happiness and contentment of the sort never felt before . . . It doesn’t arise from contact with external things in the usual way that we talk about happiness. Before experiencing this, we might never have realized that the practice of continual mindful awareness could bring such a sense of satisfaction” (16-17).
Thus the experience of awareness is portrayed as bringing unexpected joy. In Sotapattimagga Ajahn Anan describes nibbana as
“A happiness above all others. It’s a happiness that has not a drop of suffering mixed in with it at all, and it wont decline and fade back into a state of suffering. It’s the only permanent happiness. Would you like that? Its something that is truly permanent and lasting. A happiness that never changes” (91).
Thus like Ajahn Brahm, Ajahn Anan stresses that nibbana equates with happiness.
This stress on happiness through meditation, through the Buddhist path leading to nibbana, and nibbana itself is a new trend in discourses of Theravada Buddhism and meditation. The focus on the jhanas as blissful states providing untold this-worldly happiness is a reframing of meditation as primarily offering joy. It is intended to motivate and inspire meditators to remain on the path and to think about happiness not in an ordinary sense of obtaining material wants, but in a deeper sense that goes beyond desires.
The Western Meditator
Many Western meditation teachers have discussed what the typical Western meditator is like. In general, Western meditators are considered to lack faith, be more adept at analytical thought than concentration, and to prefer practicing only the mental training aspects of the tradition while leaving aside other parts of the path, such as sila, or morality. They are also seen by some to lack effort and to be hampered by their conflation of meditation and psychology.
The most popular idea for the character of Western meditators is that they are interested in wisdom and understanding but do not have faith. Teachers of these Western meditators often conclude that these meditators will eventually need to develop some faith to progress along the path, and that it will come in time. They emphasize that Western meditators should find a balance between faith and wisdom. In his dhamma talk called “Conventional Reality,” Pannavaddho stresses that Western Buddhists have a problem because they reject Christianity but throw the baby out with the bath water and forgo faith altogether. But he finds in Buddhism one still needs faith in the three jewels and nibbana.
Mae Chii Brigitte of Wat Prayong, who teaches both Thai and Western meditators, feels that Thai meditators and foreigners are different because Thai people have faith and Westerners have tendency to knowledge so each group needs to work out a different balance. Phra Uttara, of Wat Umong, finds that foreigners come to temples in order to practice meditation, not the religion of Buddhism But over time they will come to see the benefit of practicing Buddhism as a religion also. He also postulates about the main difference between foreign and Thai meditators saying that some foreigners have more wisdom than Thais but Thais have faith yet can be lacking in understanding. Phra Uttara finds that one needs both but people come to religion in different ways. Many Thais come to it through faith but most foreigners come from understanding first and then the faith comes.
The second characteristic of Western meditators is their tendency toward analysis and lack of the ability to concentrate. Ajahn Anan of Wat Marp Jan, also finds that many Westerners tend to the side of contemplation and analysis so for this type he advises the practice of letting go, and seeing things as empty. He believes this is an appropriate way to practice for particularly for Westerners. In Roger Walsh’s creatively titled article “Speedy Western Minds Slow Slowly” in Revision he quotes Daniel Goleman as writing that “our culture is designed to cultivate faithlessness and lack of concentration.” Walsh finds this comment apt as he believes Westerners receive far more sensory input than people in Asian cultures. Western peoples receive stimulations of increasing intensity and rapidity. The result of this, Walsh finds, is increased agitation and distractability and the reduced ability to concentrate (76). Because of this intense received media output, those in modern Western societies are characterized by the ability to analyze, but concentration is not strong.
Westerners are also characterized by the idea that they only want to meditate without the benefit of the other parts of the path, such as morality. Helen Jandamit in her book, The Path to Peace, writes that Westerners often think it is possible to meditate “without making any other changes to their lifestyle. It is possible to add a topping of superficial tranquility to an existing lifestyle. But it remains superficial. Real awakening is unlikely to take place in such a situation” (10). Thus Western meditators are not understanding the whole worldview of Buddhist practice, as they are only interested in purifying the mind. Jandamit advises that if the Western meditator wishes to go deeper they will have to do more than sit in meditation, they should make the practice a part of their lives.
Roger Walsh in the same article finds that in addition to the lack of concentration and faith Westerners are perceived to lack effort. They are also hampered by their interpretation of the teachings through a psychological perspective. In this article Walsh describes the perspectives of Eastern teachers who have taught Western meditators. He writes:
“The Eastern teachers remarked that Western practitioners seemed to have little appreciation of the intensity of effort required . . . Popular Western descriptions of meditation usually refer to the peace, tranquility, and bliss which it is supposed to produce. While these can occur, and do so with increasing frequency and depth as practice proceeds, popular accounts rarely mention the physical discomforts and psychological difficulties of restlessness, agitation, and emotional ability, which accompany intensive practice” (76).
Thus it is the discourse of meditation as peaceful and relaxing which has caused this lack of effort. Walsh writes that well-known Indian teacher Dipama commented that “Westerners appear less inured to discomfort than their Eastern counterparts” (76). Since many Westerners were not expecting to deal with discomfort and pain, these Eastern teachers found it was harder for them to be used to the effort required, as was already known by the Asian meditators. This article by Walsh, however, was written in 1981, and the culture of Western meditators has changed somewhat since this time. There is still the discourse of meditation as producing calm and tranquility but there are also meditation teachers in Thailand who have commented to me that many Western meditators are very serious about the practice, in some cases more so than Thai meditators. This is because many Westerners have come to Thailand specifically to participate in a meditation retreat, and therefore want to give their full effort. Phra Ajahn Suphan of Wat Rampoeng finds that some of the foreign meditators put in more effort and are more intense in their practice because they do not know when they can come back to meditate again, while the Thai meditators have the attitude that they can come back to practice many times.
Walsh in this article also finds that Western meditators are actually limited by psychology. Rather than being complementary, as many Western teachers argue, Walsh finds that
“Both Achaan Cha and the Burmese monks commented that Western practitioners seem to become trapped in doing psychotherapy on themselves rather than meditating . . . Psychotherapy focuses primarily on changing mental contents at the symbolic level . . . However, the Eastern teachers thought that while this might sometimes be useful, for a significant number of Western practitioners this focus proved to be a limiting factor preventing an awareness of more subtle mental mechanisms” (76).
Some teachers at international meditation centers today in Thailand use psychological terms in order to teach Westerners, to help them understand the practice. However, these teachers, such as Jonathan Preboy of Wat Chom Tong, emphasize that this is just a stepping stone to help the foreign meditators understand the deeper dharma.
Of course not all Western meditators are the same but Asian and Western teachers have taught them long enough to generate a list of their main characteristics as opposed to their Asian counterparts. Due to their cultural background and conditioning, Western meditators are more likely to have less concentration abilities, and to focus more on psychology when doing meditation than the more subtle practices of vipassana. Because Westerners, to a large extent, did not grow up in Buddhist cultures, they do not have the faith, usually, of their Asian counterparts and can lack an understanding of the effort necessary for the task of meditation. They also are aware of mostly the practice of meditation so sometimes can neglect to see the need for the other parts of the worldview and teachings of Buddhism, so that things like morality are avoided. Therefore a new type of meditator has come to international meditation centers, who, because of their background in non-Buddhist cultures, have different characteristics than their Asian counterparts.
*The Hardcore Dharma Movement
One of the most interesting new trends in Western Buddhism is a reaction against more ‘soft’ and ‘self-help’ type dharma books. Some contemporary Buddhist authors are now calling themselves hardcore as an opposition to this earlier work. The most outspoken and prolific of the hardcore teachers is Daniel Ingram who wrote Mastering the Core Teachings of the Buddha: An Unusually Hardcore Dharma Book. Kenneth Folk is another teacher of a similar generation as Daniel Ingram who, through his website and podcasts on Buddhist Geeks, carries the hardcore meditation practice message. And now this movement has a second generation as Vince Horn, founder of the Buddhist Geeks, calls himself the first lineage holder of both of these teachers. The changes these dharma teachers are making are very interesting and revealing about the state of Buddhist practice in Western countries.
So what is it that is hardcore about these teachers’ ideas and teachings? What are they opposing themselves to? A description of this movement is found in Daniel Ingram’s biography on the Buddhist Geeks Website where he states that he is part of:
“the global movement of meditation reform, a movement that seeks to preserve core meditation technology and supports, integrate helpful aspects from across traditions, refine the techniques and maps through exploration and verification, and spread the message that it can be done. It is also a movement to strip away the aspects of dogma, ritual, rigid hierarchy, myth and falsehood that hinder high-level practice and keep the culture of meditation mired in unhelpful taboos and misplaced effort.”
Kenneth Folk and Daniel Ingram are interested in teaching about the higher-level meditation practices and are defying the taboo against declaring one’s attainments. They have both stated that they are arahants and talk about their experiences attaining the four paths of Enlightenment openly, hoping that others will come to see that attaining this state is possible. In one of his Buddhist Geek Podcast interviews Folk narrates in detail the moments when he attained first through fourth path of Enlightenment. Kenneth Folk in his interview on Buddhist Geeks Podcast called ‘Ordinary People Can Get Enlightened’ stated this outright:
“What I really want to say here is that it’s possible to get enlightened. And I know that, because it happened to me… So I’m hoping that by telling the story, other people understand that regular, average people who aren’t wearing robes, and aren’t even Asian. Or whether they’re Asian or not. It is possible for ordinary people to get enlightened.”
One of the chapters of Ingram’s Mastering the Core Teachings, is called ‘It Is Possible!’ in order to point out that even though many think the end of the path is mythical and unattainable, people do attain these states today. He contrasts the openness in talking about the paths of Enlightenment in Burma with the paradigm you would most likely find in a Western Buddhist. “First, most Western Buddhists don’t really believe that after a few months of good practice you could get enlightened or more enlightened. They do not believe it is simply a matter of following simple instructions, moving through the clearly defined insights” (Mastering the Core Teachings, 337).
Hardcore teachers, along with revealing their own meditation experiences, critique what they consider typical Western Buddhism. They are reacting against teachings that have more in common with therapy than vipassana, are concerned with self-help and calmness rather than the sometimes destabilizing cycles of insight. They hope that through their writings and teachings, some Western Buddhists can adopt “a more empowering view of what is possible on the spiritual path” (viii).
Ingram in his book considers himself and others from the same lineage “to be dharma cowboys, mavericks, rogues, and outsiders” (ix). Although he considers himself a traditionalist who tries to get to the depths of the Buddha’s teachings, he finds that this kind of practice contrasts with much of Western Buddhist meditation cultures. The mainstream cultures, from the Hardcore dharma perspective, have been designed by certain teachers “who want everyone to be able to feel good that they are doing something ‘spiritual’” (95). But Ingram argues that this kind of teaching is not very helpful. As a solution to this, his book provides an invitation “to step far beyond the increasingly ritualized, bastardized, and gutless mock-up of Buddhism that is rearing its fluffy head in the modern West and has a stranglehold on many a practice group and even some of the big meditation centers” (95).
Ingram also says Western Buddhism is watered-down. He writes that there is a movement to make Buddhism into something for everyone (94). Ingram labels Buddhism in the West the “least goal-oriented, least practical and least effective take on Buddhism I have found anywhere” (117). In contrast to this way of teaching, Ingram characterizes one of his teachers, Bill Hamilton, as a guy who was “too smart, too uncompromising, too scholarly and too dedicated to non-watered-down dharma and to absolute mastery to be a popular mainstream teacher. He didn’t teach to make people feel good about themselves . . .” (219). Because of this watered-down approach Ingram finds that in Western Buddhist meditation circles people are not discussing their attempts to understand and master the teachings or meditation techniques, but rather their own psychological problems. He writes:
“I just wish the whole Western Buddhist World would just get over this notion that these practices are all about getting to our Happy Place where nothing can ever hurt us or make us neurotic and move on to actually mastering real Buddhist practice rather than chasing some ideal that will never appear” (297).
Ingram and Folk call the cultural factors that led to the state of Buddhism in the West “the Mushroom Factor” because as mushrooms are fed and kept in the dark, meditation teachers are using the mushroom method of teaching and raising a crop of mushroom meditators. Ingram finds that “there is this cultural factor in Western Buddhism that real insight, insight into the fundamental nature of reality or the Three Characteristics, is almost never talked about directly, unlike in Burma or some other settings” (102).
Some may wonder whom in particular Ingram is admonishing here. In fact he has great respect for many of the popular American meditation teachers, such as Jack Kornfield, but believes that their presentation of the teaching is written in a way that perpetuates the Mushroom Factor. He praises Kornfield’s A Path With Heart saying it contains many brilliant statements that should confound the reader and hit at their core sense of identity but “as they have been written in a style that is so completely accessible, these statements have nearly the opposite effect, creating a mushy comfort in the reader with statements that should have stopped them in their proverbial tracks and provoked deep inquiry” (89). Because of this, Ingram felt the need for a hardcore book about practice, such as his own.
Daniel Ingram also discusses the taboo of discussing attainments in Western Buddhist culture in a Buddhist Geeks podcast called “The Dharma Overground:” “You know, there’s this sort of a huge taboo, you can’t say you’ve attained to a jhana, and you can’t say you’ve attained to a nana, and you sure as heck can’t say you’ve attained to a path. And telling people you’re an anagami or an arhant would really be crazy.” Because of this situation, he started the Dharma Overground website where high-level practitioners could start to get comfortable with talking about attainments. The purpose of this website is to “form a safe haven for people who were into hardcore practice, real attainments, helping people out in the spirit of mutual friends, open conversations about topics related to actual practice, and the like.”
This website reveals in detail the maps on the path to Enlightenment in order to balance out the mushroom culture. Ingram offers information on how to know where one is on the path along with his own experiences to help others understand what they are or will be going through. The website’s basic principles are: “a lack of taboos surrounding talking about attainments, the assumption that the various aspects of meditative development can be mastered in this life.” And these are also the basic principles of the hardcore dharma movement, a very interesting new development in the history of Buddhism in the West.
What does this mean for the future of Buddhism in the West? The hardcore teachers are picking up on the emerging characteristics of Western Buddhist meditation practices, and are opposing themselves to it. It thus shows a growing diversity of practice and options for Buddhists in the West. But how impactful will this new movement be? As Ingram’s website grows and the hardcore supporters increase, will other teachers follow the same path? Will there be a paradigm shift in how Westerners think about meditation and interact with the core teachings of the Buddha?
*This movement is now called Pragmatic Dharma. For a list of links connected to this topic click here.
Polarization of Ideas of Enlightenment: Comments on ‘The Hardcore Meditation Movement’
The responses to the previous essay on the features of the ‘Hardcore Meditation Movement’ revealed a polarity in reactions. This post generated many comments, much discussion, and some strong reactions. Much of the discussion centered on whether or not the hardcore meditation teachers are, in fact, enlightened, as they claim. There were critics who found these claims blasphemous and wanted to see more ethics and less masculine energy coming from this movement. But there were also many defenders and practitioners who are students of hardcore teachers, saying this is not what matters about this movement, but instead it is the inspiration to practice that they provide. This polarization shows a deep division within the Western Buddhist community. The issues that divide are this idea of the possibility of enlightenment and the correct path towards this goal.
Opposition to the hardcore movement
One of the main criticisms was that this movement appeared to be too masculine, not only because there were mostly men involved but because of masculine characteristics like focusing on achievement. ‘Nathan’ found the energy of this movement to be
“very stereotypically male and testosterone driven – looking through the discussion threads on the “Overdrive” site, it’s 90% men, just to give one example. And frankly the way things are put in terms of achieving different states of mind, moving up the mountain, etc. sounds like a variation on the corporate rat race or sporting competitions.”
’LB Jefferies’ admits that even though the hardcore teachers seem genuine “their ‘manly,’ achievement-oriented approach to meditation uncomfortably echoes the ego-saturated, too-pat and just-so attitude of ex-jock preachers and spiritual teachers (characterizing, maybe caricaturizing, very broadly).”
Some people did not see enough focus on ethics within the hardcore teachers’ writings. They think of the Buddhist path as more wholistic and not only focusing on meditation and attainments. ’Nathan’ comments “who gives a damn if you’ve achieved such and such a state! are you a kinder person? do you more easily work to benefit others in the world? or is all this about some personal enlightenment?”
He feels that “Buddhism is more than meditation techniques and teachings attached to meditation techniques. And yet, I don’t get the sense that ethics, for example, are all that important to this group. Which in a way, makes them more like the early white convert boomer Buddhists were during the 1960′s and 70′s, the very same people who now lead many of the North American sanghas these guys are reacting against.”
Others questioned the method of the teachers to be able to tell students where they are on the path. They counter that it is quite difficult for teachers to diagnose stages of insight, as teachers could overgeneralize their experiences and think of it as too universal and not subjective enough, thus there are hidden consequences of these teachers’ openness that could backfire.
‘JSi’ wrote “mapping psychological states to a conceptual framework of a meditative map is difficult enough even in an interview. It may be almost impossible online, and a substantial number of people may be misdiagnosed . . . The path may be highly personal, and some may be hugely more talented on the practice than others.” But he admits that “(Ok, this is a bit unfair, for they admit that the path is personal and the maps are a mess.)”
As mentioned many commenters questioned the idea that enlightenment is possible in modern times and how to determine definitively if one had achieved this state. Should one look to the Pali Canon where it says that arahantship would correspond with knowing past lives and being able to see all three realms of existence? ‘martin’ commented that in order to know if the hardcore meditation teachers are enlightened someone would “need to ask them if they know who they were in just 50 or more lives and what kind of kamma led to this or that birth. If he knows he is not necessarily an Arahant, but each Arahant knows them.” ‘Steve Epstein’ relates how the young Theravada monks that he teaches at the Buddhist University in Chiangmai felt about this idea. He writes, ”I brought the issue of Folk and Ingram proclaiming their enlightenment to Theravada monks here at Mahachulongkorn Mahavidiyala University and they were appalled, almost disgusted. Every monk pointed out that declaring your own enlightenment was one of the most serious of sins. And they also said that this statement proves that they are not enlightened.” ‘Jim Placzek’ also is “suspicious of those who find it necessary to chart and to announce their own attainments.”
Support for the hardcore movement
First of all, those in favor of the hardcore movement liked that it didn’t pander to practitioners, or try to make them feel comfortable, but shook them up. ‘Scot’ writes about his experience with Daniel Ingram’s book:
“Reading the book has two effects: First, it makes other books on meditation seem wishy-washy. This cannot be understated. Page after page of ‘these are the stages, these are their characteristics, this is what tends to go wrong, and this is how to fix it,’ does make a difference to how you see other books. Second, it is highly motivating to be told that these states are achievable, even for normal people, even if you know you personally may never have the time.”
‘NellaLou’ feels similarly but states objectively that this movement is a masculine reaction to what some believe is an overly feminized version of Buddhism in America. She writes, “It is perhaps inevitable that the hardcore dharma viewpoint is put forward in contrast (or is it backlash) to all of the fuzzysoft, elaborate or bookish approaches. It is minimalist. . . And the hard core Dharma ‘masculine’ approach is a reaction to that self-image. And it does have a masculinity and I’d even go so far as to say an American cultural style of masculinity to it in terms of aggressive effort, attainment, individuality, defiance. It strikes me in that respect to be a reaction against the ‘feminization’ of North American Buddhism, which at times does resemble psychotherapy rather than Buddhist endeavor.”
Some commenters responded to criticisms that there weren’t enough ethics in the Hardcore movement. ‘Dan’ writes that, “having met with several members of the DhO, and having learned a lot from Daniel’s book myself, I get the impression that ethics are certainly an important part of the path. Daniel talks a lot about morality in the early chapters of his book, emphasising that it is the first and last training i.e. insight can be mastered, but morality is always an unfolding path. Even in a book that strongly emphasises mastery of insight, ethics are inescapable as realisation/enlightenment itself marks the end of the boundary between practice and enlightenment”
A number of readers found that this movement gives people inspiration and hope that normal folks can be and are enlightened. ‘Dan’ continues to discuss how inspirational it is to be open about being enlightened. “The strongest inspiration I got from Daniel’s book was not the method (which is essentially quite simple) but the fact that he was open about arahatship – that it can happen to everyday people that simply practice well.”
In rebuttal to those who say that Enlightenment and one’s attainments are never discussed in Buddhism, some commenters brought up Daniel Ingram’s podcast on the Buddhist Geeks where he revealed the secret culture of meditation teachers who discuss their attainments. He states that American meditation teachers all do use the language of enlightenment when talking about themselves, but use it in an encoded way. And some commented on how monks discuss attainments among other monks as well.
Those in favor of the values espoused by the Hardcore movement point out that it is acceptable to discuss attainments and enlightenment in monastic communities in Asia, just not in lay ones. ‘Dharma geek’ writes, ”if you’re a monk, you’re free to describe attainments and the minutiae of your own path experiences with other monks. They do it all the time. Ask the monks if they disclose to each other about these things. I’ve spent time in monasteries in Sri Lanka and I can tell you that once the lay people leave the room, monks have no problem talking about which jhana they are cultivating or whether or not something was a fruition.” ‘Petteri Sulonen’ writes “In Asia even today, and certainly during most of the history of Buddhism, the possibility of enlightenment was accepted as a matter of course. In our culture, it isn’t.”
‘Dharma geek’ continues that in Asia attainments are seen as part of Buddhism, not something secretive. “In mainstream communities discussing your own or other’s progress toward enlightenment is seen as somehow bad. But like others, when I’ve traveled to Buddhist countries and unless you are a monk who won’t talk about attainment for monastic reasons, then you are free, and encouraged, to share openly. People discuss being first, second, third or even fourth path with no compunction. What a shock to a westerner to hear!”
Thus those who believe that Enlightenment should not be discussed are following the American Buddhist culture of keeping these things secret. But the pro-hardcore meditation movement group counters that there are groups who discuss attainments, they are just not that visible or obvious. ‘Dharma geek’ writes that “This is why there is such a strong reaction to the ‘hardcore’ dharma movement, it breaks with some monastic and cultural traditions that people have interpreted very literally.” ‘Dhamma Geek’ continues that he thinks this openness is needed: “I think that there is not only room in the western dharma community for such a group voicing such a sentiment, but that it is desperately needed.” ‘Dharma geek’ writes about the importance of having this unique community. He feels a “need for a safe supportive place where people can honestly go for enlightenment. Where they can do it without worrying about how it will threaten others’ egos, or break unspoken rules about what it means to be a “good” Buddhist.”
Many readers found the hardcore movement inspiring in that insight can be mastered and it provides a safe place for discussing attainments and trying for Enlightenment. This group finds that the hardcore teachers offer a counterpoint to psychological benefits of meditation. ‘DNY’ writes, “The hardcore movement gave something new. It packages dharma in a way that can really sell, and I think that it will lead to many good things. One of those good things is confidence of practitioners to share their wisdom, enthusiasm, techniques, practice notes with others.”
‘JSi’ writes that he finds it “hard to doubt the authenticity of their experiences and program, at least Daniel’s which I know better (from his writings – I have never met them personally). He does not claim attainments for marketing purposes. Rather it seems to be a genuine attempt to change the culture, for better or worse. . .”
‘Syl’ is also positive about revealing attainments as the opposite can be even more problematic. She writes, “I think Ingram and Folk and the rest have done us all a great service by opening up this discussion. . . It is strongly implied that Rinpoches are not like you and me, but it is tacitly but very clearly discouraged to broach the subject of what exactly that might entail. . . if there are no goals spoken (for both students and teachers), no qualifications outlined beyond years clocked in some sort of training or other, then any charismatic person can set themselves up as a “dharma teacher.” . . .That has been, and still is, a recipe for abuse and disaster. Claims of attainment can be problematic, certainly, but better that they be open rather than implied.”
Others write that many people have tried these hardcore techniques and are grateful for the teachers’ honesty. They find it helpful that the teachers share their own experiences. ‘Theophanes’ writes that he benefited from reading Daniel Ingram’s book and states the positive benefits he received: “I started making real progress on the attainments and improved my life significantly . . . I am exceedingly grateful to Daniel Ingram and the whole Hardcore Dharma community. What they’re teaching does what they claim it does. Normal people can get (more) enlightened!”
‘Don’ writes of his direct experience and how Ingram’s book helped him. “I crossed one of those wild mind blowing events at my first retreat. The teacher didn’t really explain it and didn’t prepare me for the difficulty that was to come. For well over a year I searched for an explanation of the event and why my practice and life had become so hideous. I finally heard Daniel in an interview on Vince Horn’s “Buddhist Geeks” podcast, then discovered the book “Mastering the Core Teachings of the Buddha”, the web site Dharma Overground and Kenneth Folk’s web site. The advice in the book, the advice of real people making real progress on the web site all helped me to understand what had happened, what was happening, and how to proceed and make progress.”
Despite the majority of posts either for or against the Hardcore movement, there were some who remained undecided and felt that they would need more evidence before believing these teachers. For this group they would feel more comfortable if they could verify the attainments. ‘Jayarava’ writes, “It is hard to know what to make of such claims . . . I am confident of the possibility generally, if not necessarily for me . . . I’d like to meet one of these guys, hear what they have to say. I’m sure a book wouldn’t do it, because for full bandwidth communication you need to see eyes, and brows, and the rest of the face, and the body and for it all to be congruent with what they are saying.”
Thus there is a great polarization of ideas surrounding the hardcore movement. Some people still need more evidence before they can decide the validity of the teachers but mostly the commenters in favor of hardcore say this doesn’t matter, what matters is to try for yourself. The message of the hardcore teachers is radical, mostly because of their claims to attainments but also because of their critique of Western Buddhist circles. But this latter reason is accepted by many of those against the hardcore movement, they can understand what is wrong with Western Buddhism and can find commonality in this critique. It is mostly the claims to be Enlightened, and what they perceive as a lack of ethics and a masculine, driven path that turns some people off of the hardcore movement.
Lacking Faith in the Western Buddhist Communities
Western Buddhist teachers and monks have continually called for more awareness of the lack of faith in Western Buddhist communities. Monks of the Ajahn Chah lineage like Ajahn Jayasaro and Ajahn Sumedho have written about this issue. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, an American monk also ordained within a Thai forest lineage, also has picked up on this trend. These Western monks find that the Western Buddhist circles are caught in their cultural worlds of science and empiricism, and problems with theism and faith. They call for more faith in Buddhism in the West, even though this is against the cultural milieu, as faith is an aid on the path.
In an article titled “Faith in the Quest” by Ajahn Jayasaro in Forest Path he writes, “Faith has been an unpopular word in some Western Buddhist circles, especially with those people who have felt bitter about their theistic up bringing and seen in Buddhism something more ‘scientific’” (211). Thus Ajahn Jayasaro makes clear that some people are reacting against their religious backgrounds in favor of rational and scientific claims. Buddhism is positioned as aligning with this worldview—that it does not depend on faith, but rather rationality. Ajahn Jayasaro goes on to argue that this is partially untrue as Buddhism does require faith.
He continues to describe the value of faith in Buddhism:
“Nobody can prove that there is such a thing as enlightenment but if we don’t have faith that there is, our practice is unlikely to go very far. Faith clarifies the goal, focuses our efforts and fills us with energy. Ultimately it is wisdom rather than faith that moves mountains, but it is faith that impels us to move them in the first place, and faith that sustains us through the inevitable frustrations that dog our efforts” (211).
Ajahn Sumedho writes similarly in his Intuitive Awareness about the lack of faith in Western countries and the need for it on the Buddhist path. He asserts that “In the Western world we get very complicated because we don’t have a lot of saddha {faith} usually. The Asian Buddhists tend to be more culturally attuned to this. They have a lot of faith in Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, a teacher or something” (45). He continues that the problem with Westerners is “we’re complicated because of the lack of faith. Our identities get so complicated in so many ways and highly personal, we take everything personally” (46). This lack of faith then, is hindering how Westerners are receiving the Buddhist teachings.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu also writes about this in an article in Tricycle magazine called “Faith in Awakening.”
“For people from a culture where the dominant religions do make such demands {faith and belief}, this is one of Buddhism’s most attractive features. It’s especially appealing to those who—in reaction to the demands of organized religion—embrace the view of scientific empiricism that nothing deserves our trust unless it can be measured against physical data.” Thanissaro Bhikkhu confirms that in Western Buddhist circles faith is seen as less appealing and too familiar while science and empiricism are embraced. Buddhism, in these groups, is portrayed as embodying these positive aspects.
In regards to the famous Kalama Sutra which exhorts followers to see for themselves the truth of the Buddha’s message, Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes:
“Pointing to this passage, many modern writers have gone so far as to say that faith has no place in the Buddhist tradition . . . But even though the Buddha recommends tolerance and a healthy skepticism toward matters of faith, he also notes a conditional imperative: if you sincerely want to put an end to suffering (that’s the condition) you should take certain things on faith, as working hypotheses, and then test them by following his path of practice.”
Thanissaro Bhikkhu points out this tension in Buddhism—that there is the exhortation to come and see for yourself but at the same time there is the need for faith, at least at first, in order to test things out. Asian Buddhists usually do not find this tension to be a problem but Thanissaro Bhikkhu asserts that Western Buddhists find it uncomfortable and disconcerting. He continues that “Consciously or not, they {Western Buddhists} attempt to understand the Buddha’s position on faith and empiricism in a way that can be easily mapped onto the modern Western battle lines between religion and science.” Thus Western Buddhists place the Buddhist tradition on the winning side of the tension between religion and science. It is considered less religion, as they know it, and more science.
But Thanissaro Bhikkhu too wants to insert more faith into Westerners’ ideas of Buddhism. He writes that “Faith in the Buddha’s own awakening is a requisite strength for anyone else who wants to attain awakening. As it fosters persistence, mindfulness, concentration, and discernment, this faith can take you all the way to the deathless.” Thanissaro Bhikkhu and the other Western forest monks here all remind Western Buddhists of the importance of faith.
From the point of view of these contemporary Buddhists, Buddhism in the West lacks the component of faith. They argue this is because of the Western cultural tendency toward science and reaction against theistic religions. Due to this, many of those in the West interested in Buddhism go to the extreme by saying there is no place for faith in Buddhism. The writers mentioned here try to correct this and temper this extreme by noting the prevalence of faith.
Hi, I found your site via Progressive Buddhism. Do you know of any writings, opinions or otherwise, that cover Buddhism’s influence on pop culture? I’m thinking analysis/comparison of “true” Buddhism and “Buddhism” as used by Jack Kerouac, in the The Matrix, the popularization of “Zen,” etc.
Good luck with the blog.
Hi, there are some writings on Buddhism and pop culture but its just beginning. I know on The buddha is my dj blog, Scott Mitchell has posted a presentation on Pop Buddhism under the category ‘academic papers.’ Also in Rev. Danny Fisher’s blog he writes about Buddhism in movies in the links to the Journal of Religion and Film. But the problem with your comparison is that it would be very difficult to define what ‘true’ Buddhism is and then how pop cultural ideas of it are different. David McMahan’s new book, The Making of Modern Buddhism, discusses this problem in a useful way I think.
Good luck with your idea and thanks for reading!
-Brooke
Dear Brooke,
You sound very interesting. I hope we can get together while you are researching in Thailand. I run the Buddhist Meditation Institute at Wat Luang Phor Sodh in Damnoen Saduak, Rajburi Province. I am both one of those Thai Buddhists and one of those Farangs interested in Buddhism.
Here’s wishing you great success with your research.
Metta,
Phra Bart
Phra Khru Baitika Dr. Barton Yanathiro
Wat Luang Phor Sodh Buddhist Meditation Institute
Damnoen Saduak, Rajburi, Thailand 70130
phrabart@gmail.com, http://www.dhammacenter.org,
tel 089-068-0521.
Hello Brooke,
I’ve just started to follow your blog, with a lot of interest. I found it via your comments on Internal/External perspectives in Satipatthana. I’m one of the organisers of London Insight – the Insight mediation group in London – and was also interested in your reflections as you travel through the Forest Monasteries in Thailand.
I really just wanted to ask if you’d encountered Sayadaw U Tejaniya or any of the Western teachers beginning to get influenced by him. I appreciate that he is a Burmese teacher rather than Thai, but he seems to be having a major influence in the way that Insight meditation is being taught in the West.
Awaiting your reply with interest,
Gary
Dear Gary,
I have not encountered Sayadaw U Tejaniya, unfortunately. I am not as up on the Burmese teachers, although appreciate their influeince on Thai Buddhist meditation and in the West. Thanks for telling me the name though, I will look out for his work/methods.
Hi Brooke,
Have you thought of extending your studies to cover the relevance (or potential relevance) of western monks to western Buddhist in western countries?
It would seem that western laypeople tend not to support western monasteries in the same way that eastern laypeople do. In fact, some monasteries in the west survive only because they are supported by the asian communities.
Some of the comments on your blog seem to represent an “anti-monk” sentiment amongst some westerners. Will your study address whether or not monks would assist these western Buddhists or whether they will only be relevant to Buddhist immigrants to western countries.
If the Thai forest tradition is to flourish in the west then this is an issue that is central to any such success.
Steven
Steven,
Thanks for your comment. Yes, the transitions and adaptations of Western monks in their home countries is something I am interested in– probably for a future study though. I have written an article about the laicization of Buddhism in the West for The Buddhist Studies Review but it is not available freely, so I cannot post it here.
Hi Brooke – Just wanted to say thanks for your blog. I’m going to Thailand later in the year and found your reviews of the various retreats really useful. Fascinating PhD subject by the way – as a fellow postgrad student, it’s always good to come across someone doing a truly fascinating bit of research. I look forward to following your progress! Chris
One of your readers asked about a Burmese teacher. Here is some information about Vipassana teachers & meditation centres in the Mahasi tradition. For Europe and North America.
http://www.mahasi.eu
http://www.mahasi.us
There are a few Mahasi vipassana centres in England.
With metta and Joy
Jay
Hi Brooke,
I like the Contemporary Western Buddhist Memoirs, this compilation save me a lot of works. I found that some articles are not included in your list, here are some books, articles and DVDs may add into the list if you find that there are suitable:
1.The Three Pillars of Zen (chapter of the author’s daily),Philip Kapleau,Anchor
2.Venerable Father: A Life with Ahjahn Chah, Paul Breiter,Funny,1993.
3.A Dhamma of Ajaan Pannavaddho(DVD),Baan Taad Forest Monastery
4.Three Steps, One Bow:The daily record kept by Bhiksu Hung Ju and Bhiksu Heng Yo during their journey for world peace,DRBA
5.The Way of the White Clouds,Anagarika Govinda,Shambhala
6. Dragon thunder: My Life with Chogyam Trungpa,Diana J.M ukpo,Shambhala
With Metta,
Yeong
If anyone ever heard of Goenkaji’s non sectarian meditation style. You can check it out this web site. They have over 140 meditation centers world wide where you can take free 10 day course with lodging and food.
http://www.dhamma.org
Alex
[...] thanks to Brooke Schedneck‘s post “Lacking Faith in the Western Buddhist Communities” in Wandering Dhamma for making me aware of the Ajahn Jayasaro [...]